Determining the Aflatoxin load in plantain flour using direct Essay

Determining the Aflatoxin load in plantain flour using direct solar and indirect solar drying methods.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Back Ground of Study

Food drying is one of the stages along the postharvest management chain. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite AuthorYear=”1″><Author>Sabarez</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>10</RecNum><DisplayText>Sabarez (2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>10</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560179519″>10</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sabarez, Henry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Drying of food materials</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><orig-pub>Elsevier</orig-pub><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>Sabarez (2016) as early as (12000 BC) people from the Middle East and oriental cultures actively dried foods in the hot sun around (2800 BC), in ancient Egypt fruits and nuts were sun-dried, powdered milk was also produced through sun drying during the middle ages (AD 630 to AD 1630) and in the late (1700s) a dehydration unit to dehydrate fruits and vegetables at a controlled temperature was developed by the French.

In recent years especially in the develop world complex mechanical dryers are designed and used by industries to replace the natural sun drying methods.

Drying is purposely done to increase the storability level at the same time reducing undesired changes in appearance, texture, flavor and nutritional value ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Brennan</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>2</RecNum><IDText>Theory of Air-drying</IDText><DisplayText>(Brennan, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>2</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Generic”>13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Brennan, J. G.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Theory of Air-drying</title></titles><dates><year>2003</year><pub-dates><date>December 6</date></pub-dates></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Brennan, 2003). This is done by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Desrosier</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><DisplayText>(Desrosier & Singh, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Electronic Article”>43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Desrosier, N. W. </author><author>Singh, R. P.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Food preservation</title><tertiary-title>Encyclop?dia Britannica </tertiary-title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> & Singh, 2018). The presence of moisture encourages the growth of fungi during storage. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Okafor</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>14</RecNum><DisplayText>(Okafor & Eni, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>14</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560181923″>14</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Conference Proceedings”>10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Okafor, SE</author><author>Eni, AO</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Microbial Quality and the Occurrence of Aflatoxins In Plantain/Yam And Wheat Flours In Ado-Odo Ota</title><secondary-title>IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science</secondary-title></titles><pages>012017</pages><volume>210</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>IOP Publishing</publisher><isbn>1755-1315</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Okafor & Eni, 2018). In the food industry fungi is a menace as it is known to be a major agent in food deterioration or spoilage (Okafor and Eni, 2018). Fungi are found everywhere in the environment and are primarily saprophytic. They utilize nonliving organic material as a nutrient source for growth and reproduction ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mold</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>4</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mold, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>4</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Web Page”>12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mold, </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Toxins, Mycotoxins, Endotoxins, Fusariotoxin</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> 2012). The digested nutrients of fungi are grouped into two categories called primary and secondary metabolites.The primary metabolites is made up of cellulose and other compounds that are used for energy to grow and reproduce and the secondary metabolites, called mycotoxins, are produced to give fungi a competitive edge against other microorganisms ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mold</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>4</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mold, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>4</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Web Page”>12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mold, </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Toxins, Mycotoxins, Endotoxins, Fusariotoxin</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>4</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Web Page”>12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mold, </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Toxins, Mycotoxins, Endotoxins, Fusariotoxin</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> 2012).

The followin mycotoxins is of manjor concern to man Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin A, Patulin and Fusariumdue due to it adverse effect on man and animal ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>WHO</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>6</RecNum><DisplayText>(WHO, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173260″>6</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Online Multimedia”>48</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>WHO</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mycotoxins </title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> 2018). For the purpose of this work I will be limiting my self to the study of Aflatoxins. Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus fungi and are naturally occuring and very robust teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jackson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jackson & Al-Taher, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560192178″>17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Book Section”>5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jackson, Lauren S</author><author>Al-Taher, Fadwa</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Factors affecting mycotoxin production in fruits</title><secondary-title>Mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables</secondary-title></titles><pages>75-104</pages><dates><year>2008</year></dates><publisher>Elsevier</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Jackson & Al-Taher, 2008). However, Food contamination with afflatoxin is associated with warm and dry enviromental conditions and is of a major health corncern, mostly in hot, humid countries ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Esmaeilishirazifard</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Esmaeilishirazifard & Keshavarz, 2014; Villers, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560188223″>16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Esmaeilishirazifard, Elham</author><author>Keshavarz, Tajalli</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Aflatoxin occurrence</title><secondary-title>Aflatoxins-Food Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Effects. Ed. AG Faulkner, Nova Publisher, New York, USA</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Aflatoxins-Food Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Effects. Ed. AG Faulkner, Nova Publisher, New York, USA</full-title></periodical><pages>35-63</pages><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Villers</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>18</RecNum><record><rec-number>18</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560194180″>18</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Villers, Philippe</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Aflatoxins and safe storage</title><secondary-title>Frontiers in microbiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Frontiers in microbiology</full-title></periodical><pages>158</pages><volume>5</volume><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>1664-302X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Esmaeilishirazifard & Keshavarz, 2014; Villers, 2014). Large doses of aflatoxins in diet can cause serious health complications and consequences with acute or long term effect and mostly affect the liver and kidneys, but can also affect the reproductive organs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rossiter</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rossiter, 2019; WHO, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173259″>5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Web Page”>12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rossiter, Shira</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>IFIS</title><secondary-title>Aflatoxins in food: Overview and definitions</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560173260″>6</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Online Multimedia”>48</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>WHO</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mycotoxins </title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> 2019; WHO, 2018). Hence, the need for assessing food produce for permisible tolerant level for man and animals.Problem Statement

Food poisining or contamination by aflatoxin is of major concern to the food industry in the world, due to the adverse effect on human health. Regulatory bodies responsible for food in some countries are also coming out with permissible limits of aflatoxins in food produce. With respect to aflatoxin concerntration the US department of Agriculture (USDA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set a permissible limit of 20 parts per billion in food. However, more than 20 ppb in corn and cottonseed meal to be fed to livestock is allowed by the FDA ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sarma</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>19</RecNum><DisplayText>(Sarma, Bhetaria, Devi, & Varma, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>19</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”x20reer9809xe5e0908xxpz30xsfsedfdwve” timestamp=”1560200068″>19</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sarma, U. P.</author><author>Bhetaria, P. J.</author><author>Devi, P.</author><author>Varma, A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Plant Pathology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110012 India.Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132 USA.</auth-address><titles><title>Aflatoxins: Implications on Health</title><secondary-title>Indian J Clin Biochem</secondary-title><alt-title>Indian journal of clinical biochemistry : IJCB</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Indian J Clin Biochem</full-title><abbr-1>Indian journal of clinical biochemistry : IJCB</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Indian J Clin Biochem</full-title><abbr-1>Indian journal of clinical biochemistry : IJCB</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>124-133</pages><volume>32</volume><number>2</number><edition>2017/04/22</edition><dates><year>2017</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0970-1915 (Print)0970-1915</isbn><accession-num>28428686</accession-num><urls></urls><custom2>Pmc5382086</custom2><electronic-resource-num>10.1007/s12291-017-0649-2</electronic-resource-num><remote-database-provider>Nlm</remote-database-provider><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>(Sarma, Bhetaria, Devi, & Varma, 2017).

ADDIN EN.REFLIST Brennan, J. G. (2003). Theory of Air-drying.Desrosier, N. W., & Singh, R. P. (2018). Food preservation. Retrieved from Encyclop?dia Britannica website: E., & Keshavarz, T. (2014). Aflatoxin occurrence. Aflatoxins-Food Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Effects. Ed. AG Faulkner, Nova Publisher, New York, USA, 35-63. Jackson, L. S., & Al-Taher, F. (2008). Factors affecting mycotoxin production in fruits Mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables (pp. 75-104): Elsevier.Mold. (2012). Toxins, Mycotoxins, Endotoxins, Fusariotoxin. from S., & Eni, A. (2018). Microbial Quality and the Occurrence of Aflatoxins In Plantain/Yam And Wheat Flours In Ado-Odo Ota. Paper presented at the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science.Rossiter, S. (2019). IFIS. Aflatoxins in food: Overview and definitions. from H. (2016). Drying of food materials. Sarma, U. P., Bhetaria, P. J., Devi, P., & Varma, A. (2017). Aflatoxins: Implications on Health. Indian J Clin Biochem, 32(2), 124-133. doi: 10.1007/s12291-017-0649-2Villers, P. (2014). Aflatoxins and safe storage. Frontiers in microbiology, 5, 158. WHO (Producer). (2018). Mycotoxins Retrieved from